Aditya Thesis: Introduction

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS A FILM?

In the popular lingua film is also called by names like cinema, movies and celluloid.

A form of entertainment that enacts a story by sound and a sequence of images giving the illusion of continuous movement (http:// wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn)

Film encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of film as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Films (also referred to as movies or motion pictures) are produced by recording images from the world with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or visual effects. (http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film)

The Oxford American College Dictionary says film as motion pictures; movies.

HISTORY OF FILMS / CINEMA

Film has been one of the most potent forms of entertainment in the 21^st century and will be so for the foreseeable future. Early films are the result of inventors who thought that it would not last long. It was the concept of Persistence of Vision, a series of individual still pictures set into motion created the illusion of movement by British physician Peter Mark Roget in 1824 that marked the initial step in development of cinema. Based on this theory, toymakers and inventors created a number of mechanical devises like Thaumatrope, Fantascope, Zoetrope, Kinematoscope, Phasmotrope, Praxinoscope in the early 19^th century.

In the 1870s, Leland Stanford, the Governor of California in order settle a bet that when a horse gallops, all the four hooves are off ground hired photographer Eadweard Muybridge to conduct an 'chronophotography' experiment to capture the horse in motion on film. In 1878, Muybridge used multiple series of linked cameras to capture the entire length of a galloping horse. Thus creating the first ‘motion picture’

In the late 1880’s, Thomas Alva Edison and his assistant William Dickson made use of earlier inventions to construct a device for recording movement on film and another for viewing the film. The Kinetograph, a camera that could photograph motion pictures and Kinetoscope, a movie-picture projector were the result of their innovative work. (http://filmsite.org)

Edison also built the world’s first film production studio, ‘Black Maria’ in February 1893. He made a move to give the world its first public demonstration of films in May 1893 using his inventions of Kinetoscope and Kinetograph. A 34 second film, ‘Blacksmith Scene was exhibited. (http://filmsite.org)

The early moving images made at Black Maria were views of ordinary slices of life, non-fictional and unedited. (http://filmsite.org)

But it was the founding fathers of the modern cinema, the French Lumiere Brothers, Louis and Auguste who were inspired by Edison’s work and created a hand-cracked combination of movie camera and projector called ‘cinematographe’ in February 1895. They demonstrated their first invention on march 1895, screening their first film ‘workers leaving the Lumiere factory’. Their films were called ‘actualities’. (http://filmsite.org)

George Melies, a Frenchman, expanded the scope of cinema into fantasy films with his 14 minutes science fiction film – ‘A Trip to the Moon’ in 1902. (http://filmsite.org)

The father of the story film, Edwin S Porter, produced the 10 minute long ‘ The Great Train Robbery’ in 1903 with the combination of editing and narrative stories. (http://filmsite.org)

G W Griffith, who came to be known as ‘the father of film’ was rather unsuccessful in acting and writing for stage. Nevertheless, as a director, his experiments in camera techniques and lighting created a language of cinema. He is well known worldwide for his controversial film ‘The Birth of Nations’ directed in 1913 under the Hollywood studios. (http://filmsite.org)

Hollywood Studios

By the beginning of 1905, a number of filmmakers were attracted to southern California because of its cheap labour and land. (http://digitalhistory.uh.edu)

Businessmen saw that the film industry was a rising sector and became interested. They realised that profits can be made through distribution and expanding the scope of audience base. (http://filmsite.org)

William Fox was the earliest to form a distribution company in 1904 called Fox Film Corporation. The Warner brothers, founded the film exchange company (one of the earliest), Duquesne Amusement Supply Company in 1904 which went on to become Warner Bros. Pictures in 1923. (http://filmsite.org)

In 1908, a group of nine leading east coast based companies led by the Edison Film Manufacturing Company form a consortium, Motion Pictures Patent Company (MPPC) monopolising the American film industry. They were also known as the ‘Edison Trust’. MPPC legally controlled distribution, production and exhibition of films. (http://filmsite.org)

Being forced out of distribution by the Edison Trust, Carl Laemmle founded in 1912, Universal Film Company which later became the Universal Studios in 1915. It was formed by a merger of many independent companies. They moved to southern California. (http://filmsite.org)

Many filmmakers were lured to the west coast which would make Hollywood the film capital of the world. (http://filmsite.org)

The arrival of sound gave a sharp rise in the audiences. Alan Crossland’s ‘The Jazz Singer’ in 1927, was the first talkie and was very popular with the moviegoers. (http://filmsite.org)

The WWI created a greater demand for films. Adolph Zukor and Jesse Lasky merged their company in 1916 to make Famous Players-Lasky Corporation which later became Paramount Pictures – the first major film company studio. (http://filmsite.org)

Samuel Goldwyn’s Goldwyn Pictures Corporation was merged with Metro Pictures Corporation and Louis B Mayer Picture Company in 1924 to form Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer or famously known as MGM. (http://filmsite.org)

The star system, created by Carl Laemmle was just developing. ‘The Biograph Girl’, Florence Lawrence became the first movie star. By 1918, the star system had grown bigger and bigger making Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin being paid million dollars as contracts. (http://filmsite.org)

The growing influence of giant studios created apprehension among stars like Pickford and Chaplin that would lose autonomy over their careers making them join hands with G W Griffith and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919 to create United Artists Corporation where they distributed only the films produced independently. (http://filmsite.org)

In Germany, the expressionistic films were being made resulting in cinematographic experiments- Robert Weise’s The Cabinet of Dr.Caligari (1920), F W Munrau’s Nosferatu (1922), Fritz Lang’s Dr.Mabuse: The Gambler (1922). (http://filmsite.org)

There were five studios in Hollywood dubbed as the Big Five – Warner Bros. Pictures, Paramount Pictures, RKO Pictures, MGM and Fox Film Corporation who produced, distributed 90% of films in America. (http://filmsite.org)

Comedies flourished in the silent era in Hollywood. Charlie Chaplin was the most popular and ingenious among them. Other stars were Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Laurel and Hardy. (http://filmsite.org)

In Russia, Sergei Eisenstein’s landmark film ‘Battleship Potemkin’ (1925) dawned into the world scene with his usage of montage. (http://filmsite.org)

The coming of sound created a change and difficulty to the film industry with the films now being restricted to only English speaking audiences, with talkie came restriction in camera movement and decreased marketability of silent era stars. (http://filmsite.org)

In 1927, The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences was founded to recognise and reward excellence in the film industry. (http://filmsite.org)

The 1930’s and the 1940’s have been dubbed the ‘Golden Age’ of Hollywood. This was also the time when studio’s dominated the scene. Films like –

Anna Christie (1930); Mutiny on the Bounty (1935); Marlene Dietrich starring Shanghai Express (1932); The Scarlett Empress (1934); MGM produced Gone with the Wind (1939); Wizard of Oz (1939); 20^th Century Fox produced Young Mr.Lincoln (1939), Stagecoach (1939); RKO Studio produced Orson Welles’s Citizen Kane (1941) and Magnificent Ambersons (1942), King Kong (1933); Universal studio produced Dracula (1931) and Frankenstein (1933)  were popular. (http://filmsite.org)

In 1930, Hay’s Code which forbade Hollywood from glorifying crime and adultery was introduced. (http://digitalhistory.uh.edu)  Motion Pictures Production Code was introduced in 1934.

In 1935, ‘Becky Sharp’ one of the first full length feature film in Technicolor was produced. Disney produced Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 and Three Little Pigs in colour. (http://filmsite.org)

Warner Bros. developed gangster films reflecting the shaken confidence in authority and social traditions. Films like – Little Caesar (1930), The Public Enemy (1931), Scarface (1932), Angles with Dirty Faces (1938) and others. (http://filmsite.org)

The Great Depression (1933) in America made Hollywood respond with escapist films. Most of the studios suffered financially except the MGM Studios. (http://filmsite.org)

Hollywood during the 1940’s

Between 1939-41, Hollywood had not produced any big films that were supporting American intervention in war except two films – The Great Dictator and A Yank in RAF. (http://digitalhistory.uh.edu)

America entered the war after Pearl Harbour was attacked in 1941. This led to the fall in the foreign markets for Hollywood. (http://filmsite.org)

But Hollywood bounced back. It contributed in the rational morale. (http://digitalhistory.uh.edu)  US Government formed the Office of War Information (OWI) for propaganda purposes. Hollywood directors were enlisted into the military where they made documentaries or training films. Frank Capra’s series Why We Fight (1942-45), John Ford’s Battle of Midway (1942), John Huston’s documentaries Report from the Aleutians (1943) and The Battle of San Pietro (1945) , William Wyler’s documentary Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress (1944). (http://filmsite.org)

Michael Curitz made a very subtle propaganda film Casablanca (1942). Other war related films were Thirty Seconds to Tokyo (1944), The Story of G.I.Joe (1945), They Were Expendable (1945), Destination Tokyo (1943), Sahara (1943), A Walk in the Sun (1945), North Star (1943), The Purple Heart (1944), Since You Went Away (1944), This is the Army (1943), To Be or Not To Be (1942). (http://filmsite.org)

British too made war related films like 49^th Parallel (1941), The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), In Which We Serve (1942), The Way Ahead (1945), Lifeboat (1944). (http://filmsite.org)

Tarzan franchise of films which started in the 30’s continued well into the 40’s. There were films made on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s character Sherlock Holmes. (http://filmsite.org)

There were some escapist films too like Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), Holiday Inn (1944), Thief of Baghdad (1940), Miracle on the 34^th Street (1947), Mighty Young Joe (1949), Adventures of Mark Twain (1944), The Ghost and Mrs.Muir (1947). Comedy films too were popular like Marx brothers starring The Big Store (1943); A Night in Casablanca (1946); Laurel and Hardy starring The Bullfighter (1945); Ernst Lubitsch’s Heaven can Wait (1943). (http://filmsite.org)

By the end of WWII, the films made, gained a character of being more darker and cynical with dark plots and fatalistic heroes, known as ‘film noir’ genre. Most notable film noirs are – The Maltese Falcon (1941), The Gun for Hire (1942), Double Indemnity (1944), Mildred Pierce (1945), Gilda (1946), The Killers (1946), Kiss of Death (1947) and White Heat (1949). (http://filmsite.org)

40’s also saw many musicals that would help the people and GI’s escape the weariness of war. Films like Thrill of Romance (1945), Anchors Aweigh (1945), State Fair (1948), Ziegfield Follies (1946), Meet Me in St.Louis (1944), Rhapsody in Blue (1945), The Jolson Story (1946) were the most popular. (http://filmsite.org)

This decade also saw John Ford’s he Grapes of Wrath (1940), How Green was the Valley (1941), Fort Apache (1948). (http://filmsite.org)

While on the Italian scene, Neo-Realist films like Vittorio De Sica’s The Bicycle Thief (1948), Shoeshine (1946), Roberto Rosselini’s Paisan (1946),  Germany Year Zero (1947) and Stromboli (1949). (http://filmsite.org)

The House of Representatives’ Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), came on the scene and started to witch-hunt suspected Communists or their sympathisers. Screenwriters, producers, directors, who did not testify were Blacklisted, famous among them are the ‘Hollywood Ten’. (http://filmsite.org)

End of Studio system

By the late 1940’s, cold war was on the horizon and Hollywood was faced with a challenge. Some of the reasons for the decline are-

a)      People stared to remain at home because of televisions

b)      Blacklisting of some industry bigwigs

c)      Anti-trust ruling by the US Government ending studios Monopolies. (http://filmsite.org)

From 1950’s to the present day-

After the decline in the influence of the studio’s many either became independent studios or started to produce independent films. Some were sold to media Corporations and Conglomerates. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

50’s also saw many propaganda films being made against Communism. Films like - I Married a Communist (1949), The Whip Hand (1951), Walk East on Beacon! (1952) and others .while in the 60’s anti-Communist films took a more satirical turn with films like -  The Manchurian Candidate (1962), Dr. Strangelove (1964), and The Russians Are Coming, The Russians Are Coming (1966). (http://filmsite.org)

In the 60’s, John Cassavetes, known as the ‘father of independent film’ made some bold films like ‘Faces’, ‘Shadows’ where character was given importance. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

Steven Spielberg’s ‘Jaws’ in 1975 became a blockbuster hit, giving rise to blockbuster cinema. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

In 1975, Francis Ford Coppola purchased Hollywood General Studio and named it the American Zoetrope studio, which continues to produce films even now. (http://beckerfilms.com)  Director George Lucas experimented with auxiliary markets like toys based on movie characters which were a big hit and this fuelled greater budget allocation to marketing of films. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

By 1980’s independent directors and distributors like Joel and Ethan Coen, Jim Jarumusch, David Lynch and John Sayles had a large fan and audience base. Steve Soderbergh’s Sex, Lies and Videotape (1980) became a blockbuster hit and was made with a small budget. This is the best example of small film compa being a commercial hit too. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

The 1990’s brought in new computers into the editing room changing the way films were made. Technology cut the cost of filmmaking. The access to audiences with respect to independent films increased. The home-viewing in 1995 and DVDs in 1997 further brought in sweeping changes. The independent filmmaker now could directly go to his audience instead of going through distributers. In the present times, many major studios have created smaller companies that take care of independent filmmakers market. (http://moviedistributionfacts.wordpress.com)

PROPAGANDA

The Oxford American College dictionary defines propaganda as,

1.a. information especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote  or publicize a particular political cause or point of view. 1.b. the dissemination of such information as a political strategy. (2001:1088)

Propaganda is defined as narrowly selfish attempt to get people to accept ideas and beliefs always in the interest of particular person or group and with little or no advantage to the public. (http://historians.org/projects/GIRoundtable/propaganda/propaganda9.htm)

Edward Barneys defines propaganda in his book ‘Propaganda’ as, the conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organised habits and opinions. (1928:1)

HISTORY

The term comes from Congregatio de Propaganda de Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of Faith) a missionary organisation established by Pope Gregory XV in 1622. (http://britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/478875/propaganda)

The first modern government propaganda operation was under the Woodrow Wilson government. Since the people of America were pacifist, he established the Creel Commission which succeeded in America turning war mongering country. (Media control: the spectacular achievements of propaganda / Noam Chomsky, 1997:1)

In 1933, Germany created the Ministry of Public Enlightment and Propaganda headed by Joseph Goebbels which was responsible for the Nazi propaganda. (http://classes.dma.ucla.edu/spring04/161A/projects/Wes/ExcersiseF/page3.htm)

The propaganda model

Edward Hermann and Noam Chomsky have propounded a model explaining how people are propagandised consent for various economic, social and political policy is manufactured in the minds of public , all due to propaganda, in their book ‘Manufacturing Consent: the potential economy of the Mass Media.

This model postulates five filters-

1. Ownership of medium – corporations and conglomerates, to maximise their profits sacrifice news objectivity.
2. Funding of medium- through advertisements.
3. Sourcing of the news
4. Flak – negative responses to a media statement or progress
5. Anti Communism and fear

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/propagandamodel)

Propaganda in films-

The Birth of Nations was the earliest known produced picture for propaganda. The Russian revolutionists encouraged film as a medium of propaganda.  Sergei Eisenstein made the classic ‘The Battleship Potemkin’. Hitler commissioned Leni Riefenstahl to make a film on the Nazi party. She came up with ‘Triumph of Will’ and later ‘Olympia’. In America, there were many war related and propaganda films made. Chief among them are – Frank Capra’s Why We Fight, Thirty Seconds to Tokyo and Casablanca. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/propagandafilm)

      Hitler and the Triumph of Will

      Hitler a fan of early cinema saw the power and influence it could have. His party created the ministry of Propaganda with Joseph Goebbels heading it. Propaganda films became the major theme during the period. One major propaganda film of this time was Leni Riefenstahl’s ‘Triumph of Will’ which shows Hitler arriving from the sky to guide the people of the Germany who have been oppressed by the International community and is rising up due to the its god-like Fuhrer.

World War I(1914-18)

On 28^th June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria heir to the throne was assassinated by a Serb student. The Austria –Hungary invaded Serbia. This escalated into a war of European nations. Germany joined the Austria-Hungary side, later Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire too joined this group called the Central Powers. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

The Britain, France, Belgium, Japan and Russian Empire formed the Entente (Allies) powers and later America joined in 1916. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

Russia mobilised its forces to defend the Serbians. Germany declared war on Russia and France. As the Germans invaded France, they also invaded Belgium, a neutral country. This prompted Britain to declare war on Germany. Germany though was defeated in the First Battle of Marne which dashed German hopes of a quick victory. The Germans and Allies then engaged in the Race to the Sea where the ports belonging to the Allied were to be cut off. But at the First Battle of Ypres, the German offensive was halted by the Allied powers. For another 31/2 years nothing drastic happened on the western front as there was a stalemate. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

Russia mobilised its army on the eastern front. Though they lost many of their soldiers, they were able to push back the Austria-Hungarian assaults. The Austria-Hungarians retracted to their own territory. The Battle of Somme resulted in the loss of over a million lives on the Allies side. The Russian Revolution in 1917, prompted Russians to withdraw from WWI. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

Germany’s achievement was its U-Boat submarines which sank many merchant ships carrying supply. It also sank the American passenger ship, Lusitania, which enraged the Americans and made them join the war on the Allies side. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

In the Second Battle of Marne, the Germans were defeated and Allies marched towards the German territory. (http://thinkquest.org/library)

By the spring of 1918, the Allies had won all fronts and in November 1918, Germany surrendered on 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed by Germany and other Central powers ending the war formally. (http://thinkquest.org/library)  (http://en.wikipedia/wiki/wwi)

World War II (1939-45)

As totalitarian governments arose in Germany, Italy, Soviet Union and Japan, they became very ambitious. Germany and Italy formed the Axis later joined by Japan. While, Britain, France and later joined by America, thus forming the Allied powers. In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany. The Germans broke the Nazi-Soviet treaty and attacked Soviet Union territory making Soviets join the war on the Allied side. Germany conquered Denmark and Norway in April 1940. Germany invaded France, Belgium and Netherlands in May 1940. Italy invaded France from the south. With France now conquered, Germany began bombing Britain (Battle of Britain) but soon gave up. In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbour and this made America enter the war on Allies side. By the end of 1942, Japan had conquered Burma, Malaya, Dutch East Indies and Singapore. By September 1943, western Allies invaded the Italian mainland. There had been a decrease in the German submarines. In January 1944, Soviet army pushed the Germans out of Leningrad. On June 6^th 1944 (D-Day), Allies invaded Northern France. Eventually this resulted in the defeat of Germans in France. The Soviet troops, by September 1944 advanced to Yugoslavia, Hungary. In December 1944, Germany made last attempt launching a counter attack but with no success. By April 1945, Soviet troops stormed Berlin. Later Reichstag was captured, marking the defeat of Nazi Germany. On May 3^rd American forces moved towards Japan. In early 1945, America dropped atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On 15^th August, Japan surrendered, thus ending the World War II. (http://thinkquest.org/library)  (http://en.wikipedia/wiki/wwii)